The Milgram experiment and what it means

In 1961, social psychologist Stanley Milgram invited volunteers to participate in a study on memory and learning although the true nature of his experiment was to investigate obedience to authority.  He told participants that they were randomly assigned to either the role of teacher or learner when in fact all participants were assigned to be the teacher as every learner was a paid actor.  The participant and learner were put in separate rooms, so they could not see each other but could hear each other. The participant was to ask a series of questions to the learner, and as the teacher they were told to shock the learner whenever the learner gave an incorrect response. With each incorrect response, the participant was to increase the shock voltage by 15 volts with a maximum voltage of 450 volts, which can be lethal.  Another confederate, John Williams, was dressed in a white lab coat and acted as the authority figure in the room responding that the participant should continue the study if or when they protested.  Once the study was completed Milgram reported that 65 percent of participants repeatedly administered shocks that they believed caused severe pain and possibly death to the learner.   

Milgram conducted this study because he was interested in trying to explain the behavior of Nazis during the Holocaust.  According to Gina Perry, who is a psychologist and author of a new book entitled Behind the Shock Machine, at the time Milgram’s research was first published the American public was fascinated by the images of Adolph Eichmann that they saw on their televisions from his trial.  Hannah Arendt, covering the trial, described his impassivity and ordinariness as terrifying.  Milgram wanted to show that everyone was capable of being both ordinary and evil if one surrenders his/her will to an authority figure.  For many, Milgram seemed to be justifying the “just following orders” defense of many Nazi perpetrators.  Milgram in his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority, argued that subordinates, such as those under Adolf Hitler, fall into what he described as a  “profound slumber” where a man is capable of things “alien to his nature,” and feel “virtually guiltless.” Milgram wanted to re-create this “profound slumber” to see if ordinary people really engage in evil behavior.  And according to his published article, and later his book, the answer was yes, ordinary people would engage in evil behavior. 

The reason I’m writing about this experiment is because his experiment is usually accepted as valid, and then used as evidence of a psychological truth that we are all inherently evil and that evil will come out when given permission by an authority figure.  But the evidence for this supposed truth is much less credible than originally thought. Perry discovered through archival research that the results Milgram published were not always an accurate portrayal of what he observed in his experiment.  Thus his description of Nazi perpetrators committing crimes in a “zombie-like” state may not be as accurate as his original publications imply; meaning that the “I was just following orders” defense may not be as supported by Milgram’s experiment as is usually believed. 

For example, Milgram wrote in his original article that 65% of participants conformed to the authority figure and administered severe pain to the learner.  This number implies that there was one experiment, but what Perry discovered was that Milgram conducted 24 different variations of this experiment and when Perry took into account all of the variations she found that in over half of the 24 variations a majority of participants disobeyed the authority figure.   So the statistical evidence is not as straightforward as was presented by Milgram.  Another issue was his methodology.  One reason for conducting a lab experiment is to have tight controls over all variables so that you can be certain your independent variable (authority figure) impacted your dependent variable (shocks) and that your results are not due to some other extraneous variable.  When listening to the audio recordings, Perry noticed  that John Williams, the individual playing the authority figure in the room, was not following a clear script.  Milgram in his publications wrote that Williams followed a strict four phrase response to any questions asked by the participant (teacher) but according to Perry’s research, Williams often went off-script and commanded subjects up to 25 times to continue with the experiment.  This hurts the credibility of his findings as that type of behavior shows the researcher trying to create a certain response, so the participant response is no longer organic but produced by the researcher. And finally Perry discovered correspondence between Milgram and his participants after the study was completed documenting how some participants were suspicious that the scenario was a hoax.  As Perry points out, Candid Camera was the most popular show on television at the time.   For example, participants told Milgram that the learner cries seemed to come from the corner of the room, like from a tape recording.  Others noted that they actually decreased the voltage yet the learner’s cries intensified.  As Perry writes, the skepticism of the participants hurts the validity of the study, as the participant’s belief in the scenario was crucial to measuring how much pain people were willing to inflict on someone.  If participants were suspicious, they may have demonstrated demand characteristics and simply started to do what it was clear the researchers wanted. 

Perry’s research is important for us to know about because many believe that Milgram provided solid evidence to support the supposed truth that we are all ordinary and all capable of evil. Because once we begin to accept that as true, we begin to act in ways that corroborate that truth; thus we become self-fulfilling prophecies.  Whether you believe that Milgram’s finding are valid or not, he does provide an important reminder that we should all be critical readers and thinkers. 

Perry, Gina.  The Shocking Truth of the Notorious Milgram Obedience Experiments.  http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2013/10/02/the-shocking-truth-of-the-notorious-milgram-obedience-experiments/#.Uulo_xaBXww.  October 2, 2013.   

Poetry in Holocaust Education

I feel like I should begin this blog entry with a couple of disclaimers. First, this year I am teaching several sections of 7^th and 8^th grade Creative Writing; it is an elective class. I did not imagine that I could find a way to teach the Holocaust in Creative Writing. Second, as a Holocaust educator, I have a fairly strong prejudice against fictional Holocaust literature. I believe there are excellent memoirs, diaries, and non-fiction pieces which students can read to understand the personal experiences of those who survived or perished during the Holocaust.

That being said, I came upon an interesting book recently which I offer for your consideration. Requiem: Poems of the Terezín Ghetto by Paul B. Janeczko. The poems in the volume were written by Janeczko; however, the voices of the poems vary and show us the Terezín Ghetto from various points-of-view. For example, Hilda Bartos tells us, in her poem, how Terezín changed once the town began to be used as a prison for Jews. SS Lieutenant Theodor Lang speaks in his poem of preparations for a visit by the Red Cross. In most of the poems, we hear the imagined voices of Jews imprisoned at Terezín. Tomasz Kassewitz tells, in his poem, about playing chess on Fridays with his friend Willi - until it becomes too dangerous for Willi to socialize with a Jew. Trude Reimer tells of playing the part of a cat in the play Brundibár. Sara Engel tells of her experiences sorting the possessions confiscated from the ghetto’s prisoners. The volume is illustrated with drawings created by inmates of Terezín which were discovered after the war ended.

The poems reflect solid research by Janeczko. The Afterword and Author’s Note at the back of the volume provide valuable background information that I would advise reading first. There is an excellent list of sources at the end of the text.

In my view, there are at least two questions worthy of debate concerning Janeczko’s work. First, does this volume of poetry contribute in a significant and valuable way to the canon of Holocaust literature? Second, would Requiem serve as a useful instructional tool with secondary students?

I don’t think I qualify as an expert, but I have read quite a lot of Holocaust literature during the past ten years. I own cabinets full of memoirs, diaries, short stories, novels, and non-fiction history. I can think of some individual poems that I have read about Holocaust topics. However, I can’t recall anyone who has tried to do what Janeczko has done – create a single portrait of a ghetto from the points-of-view of the inmates, Nazi guards, and non-Jewish residents of the nearby town. Original poems from all of these perspectives do not, to my knowledge, exist within the historical record. Therefore, Janeczko had no choice but to create them from his imagination based on extensive research. To answer the first question – yes, I think this volume does make a valuable and interesting addition to the canon of Holocaust literature.

My answer to the second question is also yes. The poems in this volume are excellent examples of free verse poetry and could be used as models in several of the craft lessons I teach in Creative Writing. The book is a lovely example of how poems can be used to create a narrative; in this case they tell the story of people whose lives converged in a particular place but not by chance. The book would be an excellent source of material for students in performance, drama, or forensics courses. How exciting it would be to see a group of students perform an interpretive reading of the poems in this volume! The book is very short – only 89 pages of poems and illustrations. Therefore, this may be a good choice for time-strapped language arts or social studies teachers who want to complement non-fiction Holocaust materials with materials from the fine arts. Art teachers may enjoy studying the illustrations that were created by Terezín’s residents. I stated in my first disclaimer that I had not considered teaching the Holocaust in Creative Writing. I think Janeczko's poems create that possibility.

I happened upon Requiem: Poems of the Terezín Ghetto by Paul B. Janeczko by accident. I was searching the Johnson County Library for poetry books for use in my Creative Writing classes. However, I think I stumbled over a gem. I am curious for other Holocaust educators to read this book and share what they think about it.

1942 and the Final Solution - A Course for Educators

This course explores the path and process of the Final Solution, offers in-depth analysis of the death camp system with a special emphasis on the Operation Reinhard Camps, and considers the impact of a short 11-month time frame from mid-1942 through mid-1943 that saw the destruction of millions of people. Analysis of primary source documents, exposure to ready-made lesson plans, and practice with these resources will equip teachers with tools to engage their students in meaningful learning about the Final Solution. 

 

Appropriate for 7-12th grade classrooms. 

 

Complete details and registration available HERE!

Complicate Your Thinking

When I signed up for MCHE’s four-day summer education seminar, “Responses to the Holocaust: Perpetrators, Victims, and Bystanders,” I assumed it would be a chance for me to review and solidify my understanding of the Holocaust.

Well, the seminar ended up being a good reminder that it’s not wise to make assumptions, because I spent most of it “complicating my thinking.” Mitch Braff, executive director of the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation, used this phrase to encourage us to embrace the Holocaust’s complexities. The presenters made me question basic assumptions I had about the Holocaust. Here are some examples:

· By analyzing actual train shipments, noted historian Dr. Robert Jan van Pelt challenged the commonly held belief that the Germans diverted resources from the Eastern Front to murder Jews. According to his research, in 1944 at the height of the Hungarian deportation, only ten of every 25,000 trains running each day in Europe were designated for the deportation of Jews.

· Dr. Severin Hochberg, a former historian with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, discussed the extent to which the Catholic Church, and specifically Pope Pius XII, was a bystander.

· On the final day, we explored the role of Jewish partisans in the war and the ethical issues they faced.

This seminar did complicate my thinking, but in a good way. Participating in these discussions reminded me that history is about real people, and it must be understood with all of its complexities to do it justice.

Unique Summer Course

Responses to the Holocaust: Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders

July 18-21, 2011
8:30-4:00

Jewish Community Campus
5801 W. 115th Street
Overland Park, Kansas

REGISTER BY JULY 1, 2011 TO RECEIVE
YOUR COURSE BOOK BY MAIL!

 This one time only graduate-level course examines the roles of Jewish victims, perpetrators, bystanders, the Allies and neutrals in the Holocaust. The course will feature lectures by guest historians, content-based readings, primary source analysis, survivor testimony, group discussion, and practical application for 7th-12th grade classrooms.

SCHEDULE OF SPEAKERS
July 18-19 will feature presentations by internationally-renowned Auschwitz expert Dr. Robert Jan Van Pelt. Through lecture and discussion, based on his book Holocaust: A History, he will focus on the responses of Jewish victims and perpetrators.

July 20 will feature presentations by Dr. Severin Hochberg, formerly of the Senior Historian’s Office at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and currently teaching in the history department at George Washington University. His sessions will include an in-depth analysis of the international response to the Holocaust - including a focus on refugee issues and bystanders - and the responses of the churches to the Holocaust.

July 21 will feature Mitch Braff, executive director of the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation (JPEF). Through the use of web-based testimonies, he will bring participants’ focus back to Jewish responses to the Holocaust, specifically armed and unarmed resistance. 

REGISTRATION INFORMATION
The course includes pre-reading for the sessions. Readings will be mailed to those who register by Friday, July 1, 2011.

A registration fee of $75, payable to MCHE, covers lunch on site Monday and Tuesday, course materials, including Robert Jan Van Pelt’s book, Holocaust: A History as well as curriculum materials and a DVD of partisan testimony from JPEF. Snacks and beverages will be provided each day, with lunch on your own Wednesday and Thursday.

Two hours of optional graduate credit will be available from Baker University. A separate enrollment fee of $100, payable to Baker University, will be collected on the first day of class.

CLICK HERE FOR REGISTRATION FORM AND COMPLETE INFORMATION!

Relating the Holocaust to Other Genocides: A Seminar Series for Educators

CLICK HERE FOR REGISTRATION FORM

Conference Room C
Jewish Community Campus
5801 W. 115th Street
Overland Park, Kansas
 
These sessions examine Holocaust history as it relates to other modern genocides. Participants will explore the history of the Holocaust and its connections to genocides in Armenia, Rwanda, Bosnia, and Darfur. Analysis of primary source documents, discussions of the stages of genocide and hands on practice with these resources will equip teachers with tools to engage their students in discussions of the relevance of Holocaust history as well as discussions of genocide prevention and awareness. Sessions will feature hands-on work with lesson plans appropriate for 7-12 th grade classrooms with an emphasis on cross-curricular approaches. All sessions will be led by members of the Isak Federman Holocaust Teaching Cadre with oversight by MCHE's Jessica Rockhold.

Schedule of Sessions:
All sessions meet from 4:30-7:30. Educators may sign up for individual sessions or the entire series.

January 12, 2011 - Defining Genocide / Case Study: The Armenian Genocide

These lessons will analyze the definition of genocide and the eight stages of genocide as well as explore resources for teaching the Armenian genocide and its relationship to the Holocaust

 February 9, 2011– Genocide and the Power of the Written Word: Diaries, Memoirs and Propaganda

These lessons will feature resources and methods that draw connections among genocide experiences, using primary sources including diaries and survivor memoirs and a detailed unit exploring propaganda in the Holocaust and Rwanda.

 March 2, 2011—Choosing to Act: Resisters, Bystanders, Perpetrators

These lessons will explore the responses of various groups to the Holocaust and other genocides, specifically decisions made by bystanders as well as a document-based question on resistance.

 April 13, 2011—Memory and Memorialization: Visual Representations of Genocide Experiences

These lessons will explore art from the Holocaust and other genocides as well as memorialization of these events.

A registration fee of $15 per session covers a light meal and materials. Registration must be received at least 1 week prior to the session for individual sessions or by January 1, 2011 for the entire series. Optional graduate credit (1 hour) through Baker University will be available for an additional $50 fee (payable to Baker).

Humanize the perpetrators too

During the eleven years I taught a Holocaust unit to my 8^th grade language arts classes, I often discovered that I was a student myself. Preparing for various lessons, I would delve into research, videos, and literature, finding more information to pass on to my students. I often felt that the more background information students had on the Holocaust, the more they would appreciate our various readings. Soon, this developed into a research project, as well. During those early years, I would nod my head in agreement as the students talked about the "evil" perpetrators and the inhumanity of the German people.

It wasn’t until much later in my teaching career that I realized I needed to present the perpetrators and citizens of Germany in a different way. It almost seemed that the students were seeing Hitler and many of the high-ranking Nazis as evil characters synonymous with the type of villains seen in movies. It became apparent that perhaps the students needed to know that many of these men had families and lead very normal lives.

Images of Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Hedydrich with their children humanized these individuals, thus putting into perspective that even an ordinary man is capable of committing horrific acts. We would discuss how, in many cases, these were family men simply looking to advance their positions in their careers, as incomprehensible as that may seem.






















Left: Heinrich Himmler with daughter Gudrun
Right: Reinhard Heydrich with daughter Silke

Furthermore, students always seemed quick to condemn all Germans for their actions. Again, as time passed, I realized that the students needed to recognize that the majority of German people were not perpetrators, but rather bystanders…that it wasn’t so much the action of the German citizens, but rather the lack of action that should serve as the lesson. In addition, I felt that students needed to remember that while we are quick to judge Germany’s past, we have our own dark chapters in United States history that we to need to recognize (slavery, discrimination, etc.). This often became great opportunity to discuss the similarities between the Nuremberg Laws and the Jim Crow laws.

Teaching about the Holocaust can be a very daunting task. It seems that each year, I gained a new insight on how to present a topic. Now, as I hold the position of library media specialist, I discover that I am presented with a whole new list of challenges on how to present lessons of the Holocaust; however it is a challenge I am ready to tackle.

Resources on Perpetrators and Bystanders (available in the MCHE Resource Center):
The Good Old Days by Ernst Klee
Ordinary Men by Christopher Browning
Death Dealer by Rudolf Hoess
Into That Darkness by Gitta Sereny
Bystanders by Victoria Barnett
Perpetrators Victims Bystanders by Raul Hilberg
Shoah (DVD) by Claude Lanzmann